Guide to the Marking of Written Assignments
by Ian Johnston

[This document is in the public domain and may be used, in whole or in part, by anyone, without permission and without charge, provided the source is acknowledged.  Released July 2000]

Table of Contents

1.1 The basic unit of writing is the clause, a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. The subject names something (person, place, thing, or idea), and the predicate asserts something about the subject. The major part of the predicate is the verb, the word which describes an action or a condition involving the subject.

The car ran over the pedestrian. (Independent clause).
Just as the car ran over the pedestrian. (Dependent clause)
Although the car ran over the pedestrian. (Dependent clause).
The fact that he was out of the room.  (Dependent clause)

1.2 The most basic mistake in writing is the sentence fragment. This error occurs when what is offered up a sentence is not complete, because some essential part is missing, usually the subject or the verb.

There was a heavy snowfall. Causing the bridge to fall down.
[The second sentence in the above example has no subject and no main verb]

For example, the truck without chains in the mud.
[This sentence has no predicate. It names a subject but asserts nothing about it]

I ran home. Which was a stupid thing to do.
[The second sentence has no independent clause. The word "Which" introduces a dependent clause which cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence]

1.3 Be careful to avoid the common forms of a sentence fragment. Make sure that every group of words which you offer as a sentence (i.e., starting with a capital letter and ending with a full stop) contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete idea. If you are not sure quite what this means, read Sections 1.1 and 1.2 above.

1.3.1 Do not offer up a dependent clause with an introductory subordinating word as an independent clause. Such a dependent clause must have a main clause to complete the meaning. The following examples illustrate this mistake (the first example is really common with writers who confuse although and however):

Henry asks his wife about working in the garden. Although he does not really mean the offer seriously.
[The second sentence is a dependent clause; it cannot stand by itself]

We cannot recommend going ahead at this stage. Since the cost of the project is excessive.
[The second sentence here is a fragment, since it is a dependent clause. It cannot stand by itself].

1.3.2 Be particularly careful of sentences starting with the word which. Unless the sentence is a question, you will almost always be writing a fragment. See the third example in 1.2 above. The same problem can occur with who and whose. Do not start a sentence with these words, unless you are asking a question.

1.3.3 Do not construct a sentence which has only a present participle in place of a main verb. See the first example above in 1.2. A present participle (a verbal adjective ending in -ing) cannot stand by itself as a main verb. This is a very common form of sentence fragment.

1.3.4 When you start a sentence with the words For example or For instance make sure the example you then offer forms a complete sentence (see the second example in 1.2 above).

1.3.5 Do not use point form in an essay, business letter, or technical report, since that style depends a great deal upon sentence fragments. In formal college writing, never use point form.

1.3.6 Be careful at the start of a business letter with the phrase In regard to or In response to. If you start a sentence in this manner, you will often write a sentence fragment.

1.3.7 A sentence which begins with a noun clause introduced by the word that is a fragment, unless you add a main clause to the that clause. For example, the words A sense that the speaker is sad by themselves form a fragment, since the phrase consists of a noun (sense) and a dependent clause introduced by that. To correct the fragment, you will have to add a predicate (with a main verb), for example, A sense that the speaker is sad pervades the poem.

1.3.8 Be careful of quotations which do not form complete sentences. You cannot leave these by themselves. Incorporate them into your own sentence, so that you do not create a fragment.

Lear's speech indicates that the heavenly bodies have a role in a person's character. "By all the operation of the orbs/ From whom we do exist and cease to be" (1.1.111-112).

The quotation here is set up as a complete sentence (between full stops), but it is not a complete and independent idea. To correct the mistake, make the quotation part of the previous sentence by changing the full stop to a comma or a colon.

1.4 Sentences are either statements, questions, commands, or exclamations. In college writing, almost all your sentences should be statements and therefore begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop. However, notice the following points.

1.5 Never use a question mark when the sentence forms an indirect question, that is, when the sentence reports a question as part of a statement. The question mark remains if the question is in quotation marks, but is not present if the question is a integral part of the reported speech. Notice the following examples.

Why were you late? 
(Direct question; question mark is necessary)

She asked me why I was late. 
(Indirect question, no question mark)

She asked, "Why were you late?" 
(Direct question in quotation marks; question mark is necessary)

The question remains whether or not she is guilty. 
(Indirect question, no question mark)

I don't know why she is guilty. 
(Indirect question, no question mark)

1.6 Do not use double question marks when you are dealing with a sentence which is a question and which contains a quotation which is a question. Notice the end punctuation (the position of the question mark) in the following examples:

Why are you late?
She asked, "Why are you late?"
Did she ask, "Why are you late?"
Did she say, "I was late"?

1.7 Exclamations, indicated by an exclamation mark at the end of the sentence, are not particularly common in formal writing and in technical prose. Unless you are interested in a very special effect, you should normally avoid exclamations as much as possible. And never use them so frequently that the effect is lost.

1.8 In any clause, the subject must agree with the verb; that is, a singular subject has a singular verb, and a plural subject has a plural verb. Make sure you do not become confused by some word between the subject and the verb. Notice the following examples.

The collection of fifty guns has been stolen. [The subject is collection]
The disease which infected the trees is root rot. [The subject is disease]

1.9 When a sentence has two or more subjects joined with the word and (i.e., has a compound subject), the verb is obviously plural. For example, "John and his sister are arriving tomorrow."

1.10 Sometimes (and very rarely) a compound subject will take a singular verb. This normally occurs only when the two nouns form a single unit and always appear together as a unit (e.g., macaroni and cheese, ham and eggs, hack and squirt, rock and roll, fish and chips, and so on).

Macaroni and cheese is my favourite food.
Hack and squirt was an appropriate method in this case.

1.11 Some words which have a plural form routinely take a singular verb, and subjects which name numerical qualities usually have a singular verb. The following words, for example, are normally singular: news, physics, economics, fifteen miles, eight years.

Fifteen miles is a long way to hike, and twelve hours was not enough time.
The news is not good.

1.12 Note that group noun are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on usage. Write what sounds more correct to you. The same rule applies to the names of specific companies, countries, or groups.

The army is marching, and the police are preparing for trouble.
The United States is a very powerful country.
The Rolling Stones are more popular than Styx.

1.13 Make sure you are consistent with group nouns and names. If you treat the name of a company as plural, for example, then keep it consistently plural in the sentence and throughout the piece of writing. You will have to watch very carefully the verbs and the pronouns.

Gorman Brothers are expanding their logging division. They are hiring more staff for their expansion.

Gorman Brother is expanding its logging division. It is hiring more staff for its expansion.

1.14 When you use the expressions there is (or there was) and there are (or there were), the verb must agree with what comes after it (the complement). If the complement is singular, then the verb must be singular (is or was); if the complement is plural, then the verb must be plural (are or were). Do not use there is (or was) with a plural complement or there are (or were) with a singular complement.

There is no reason to worry, since there are many ways we can deal with this problem.

There were many more men available, so there was no problem when he was late.

1.15 Many indefinite pronouns are routinely singular: everyone, none, someone, no one, every, everybody, each and so on. These words require a singular verb:

Everyone is keen, each of the commanders is ready, no one is absent, and everyone is going to perform bravely.

None of the answers is satisfactory. [Note that none is a short form for not one, hence singular]

1.16 The word number can sometimes create problems. When you use it to mean several or some, then it is a plural word and requires a plural verb. When you use it word number to mean a mathematical figure, then it is singular and requires a singular verb.

A number of students are going to write the examination.
The number of this bus is 715.
The number of urban crimes is decreasing.

1.17 Be very careful with the expressions as well as, together with, combined with and along with. These prepositions do not form compound subjects requiring a plural verb.

The supervisor as well as the crew arrives tomorrow. 
[Singular verb since the subject is supervisor]

The supervisor and the crew arrive tomorrow. 
[Plural verb since the subject is supervisor and the crew]

1.18 If the subject of the sentence is a choice linked by or or nor, then the verb agrees with the subject closer to it. Both of the following examples are correct. Notice that the verb agrees with the closer subject.

The coach or the players have stolen the money.
The players or the coach has stolen the money.

1.19 Whenever possible, avoid unnecessary passive verbs, by making the source of the action the subject of the verb. Note that the terms active and passive applied to verbs refer to the two different voices of most English verbs. If you do not understand these terms clearly, read the following details carefully.

The students carried out the assignment.

The assignment was carried out by the students.

The class studied the poem in the seminar. [Active]
In the seminar the poem was studied by the class. [Passive]
The engineer put special steel in this wall. [Active]
Special steel was built in this wall by the engineer. [Passive]

The lecture was delivered yesterday at 10:30 a.m. in Room 203.
My car was driven very dangerously last night.

1.20 Try to avoid a sudden switch from an active verb in the first part of a sentence to a passive verb in the remainder of the sentence. The effect is usually awkward and confusing.

Nora decides to do something decisive, so her family is abandoned by her.
[Write instead: Nora decides to do something decisive, so she abandons her family]

The company mills dimensional lumber, which is sold in the USA.
[Write instead: The company mills dimensional lumber, which it sells in the USA]

1.21 Avoid the very awkward impersonal passive expressions (passive verbs with it as the subject). These are almost always very awkward and uninformative. Here are some examples:

it can be seen that
it has been decided that
it was observed that
it is recommended that
it was concluded that
it has been said that
it must be considered

we can see that
someone has decided that
the class observed that
we recommend that
the officer concluded that
many people have said that
one must consider that

1.22 In scientific-technical writing, when you are describing a process (usually a job you have undertaken or a trip you are reporting back about), be careful not to slip into the passive all the time. Keep the verbs active by indicating who did the various tasks you are describing. Notice the following examples:

First the base line was measured. Then sample plots were established. And finally tree heights were calculated.

First we all measured the baseline. Then, Tom Jackson established the sample plots. Finally Cynthia James and Terry Brown calculated the tree heights.

1.23 In formal and especially in technical writing, you should try as much as possible to avoid the passive in the recommendations section of a report. Use the active, and thus indicate who is to carry out the action you are recommending. Don't say something like "We recommend that the manufacturer should be informed of the defect." Indicate who is to do the action: "We recommend that the Project Engineer inform the manufacturer of the defect."

Something must be done to stop the spread of the AIDS epidemic in East Vancouver.

The provincial and municipal governments must do something to stop the spread of AIDS in East Vancouver.

1.24 Take particular care to avoid the very sloppy habit of relying on the passive of the verbs to use and to do. Note the following examples:

This machine is used to cut dimensional lumber.
[Say instead: This machine cuts dimensional lumber]

The tape is used by Spit to remind him of old times.
[Say instead: Spit uses the tape to remind him of old times, or The tape reminds Spit of old times]

The ranching is done by Henry.
[Say instead: Henry does the ranching]

The sorting of the lumber was done by a J-bar.
[Say instead: A J-bar sorted the lumber]

This analogy is used by Plato to establish his argument.
[Say instead: Plato establishes his argument with this analogy.]

1.25 Make sure the verb(s) in the sentence are in the appropriate tenses (past, present, future). The following guidelines may help.

1.25.1 Describe past actions, observations, and events in the past tense, even if the actions are still going on. In field trip reports, for example, you are recording what you saw or did some time ago, and the past tense is usually the proper form of the verb, as in the following example.

Two weeks ago I visited the Acme Manufacturing Plant. Mr. Thomas took me on a tour of the factory. The equipment was very impressive, but the organization of the plant seemed quite confusing. I did not understand their management style. Still, the operation was obviously efficient, since the average production run for that month was well above the average in comparable industries.

1.25.2 Use the present tense to describe present actions (things that are going on as you write) and to provide definitions or geographical descriptions (commonly part of the introduction to a report or essay).

1.25.3 Use the present tense to describe what goes on in a work of fiction, a philosophical argument, or a report, even if the text is old. Get used to this convention if you are writing essays on literature or if you discuss books, manuals, films, plays, paintings, and so on. Use the past tense to describe the historical context of the work (when it was written, the facts of the author's life at the time of the composition), but stay in the present tense to describe what is going on in the work. Note carefully the verb tenses in the following examples:

Shakespeare wrote Hamlet in 1600. In the play, the hero suffers from an inability to act decisively, and his actions by the end are very destructive. Early in the play his father's ghost tells him that he must avenge his death.

The government's report on the forest industry appeared two years ago. The report lists a number of critical reasons for the sorry condition of the once-thriving coastal pulp mills. The most important reasons are clearly the following:

Aristotle wrote the Nicomachean Ethics in the latter part of his career in Athens. In the work, he takes issue with Plato's theory of forms. He introduces a number of arguments to refute the position Plato sets out in his earlier works.

1.25.4 The conditional tenses (should, would) are useful when you want to set down the conclusions and recommendations to a report or when you wish to indicate something which ought to have taken place.

The supervisor should have told his men about the dangers of this pesticide. In future the company should provide a full training program for all field personnel on this project.

1.26 As well as tenses (past, present, future, conditional) and voices (active and passive), verbs also have moods: the indicative mood, the imperative mood, and the subjunctive mood. The indicative is the mood commonly used in almost all writing. The imperative expresses direct commands (e.g., Stop. Listen to me). The subjunctive mood is very rare. Observe the following guidelines in selecting the mood of the verb.

1.26.1 In technical writing, use the imperative (commands) only in a list of specific instructions (as in this handbook) or occasionally to invite the reader to consider a particular point (e.g., Consider the case of the Stein Valley or Notice the topography in the top left corner of the map). But be careful not to switch back and forth from the indicative to the imperative, especially when you are describing a process.

First the supervisor surveyed a base line. Next, establish the plots at 10 m intervals. Then the crew sampled each plot.

In the above sentences, the second sentence has switched to the imperative mood (i.e., it issues a command rather than making a statement). That sentence should be rewritten in the same style as the others:

First the supervisor surveyed a base line. Next, the entire crew established the plots at 10 m intervals. Then the crew sampled each plot.

1.26.2 Verbs in the subjunctive are not very common. Use the subjunctive for impossible conditions or wishes or hypothetical conditions:

I wish I were the man in the moon.
If she were in my shoes, she would do it.
God bless the queen.

1.26.3 In sentences reporting recommendations and decisions the subjunctive is common, but the indicative is increasingly acceptable.

We recommend that the president fire the sales manager. [Subjunctive]
We recommend that the president fires the sales manager. [Indicative]

These two forms are equally acceptable. But you should be consistent in any list of recommendations. If you decide to use the subjunctive form, then use it throughout the list; if you prefer the indicative, then stay consistently with that tense throughout the list. Do not switch back and forth.

1.27 Do not switch tenses or moods unnecessarily from the past to the present or from the indicative to the imperative and back again. This habit can create much confusion for the reader.

While I was walking home, he hits me.
[Is the action present or past? Make the verb tenses consistent]

We watched a feller-buncher at work. This machine has a very expensive cutting head which needed a great deal of attention. It can cut over 1000 stems per day, but was not very stable on slopes.
[Since the section above is part of a field trip report, put all the verbs into the past]

Put the new oil in the engine; then you must get rid of the old oil.
[Keep in the imperative or the indicative, without switching: Either "First you put in the new oil; then you must get rid of the old oil." Or "Put in the new oil; then get rid of the old oil."]

1.28 Sentences are classified in four main types according to the arrangement of main clauses and subordinate clauses, as follows:

1.29 A compound sentence contains a least two independent clauses, both of equal importance. The two independent clauses might be separated into two separate sentences without creating a fragment, but the writer has decided to join them into a single sentence. The commonest way to construct a compound sentence is to join the two independent clauses with what is called a co-ordinating conjunction (and, but, or, yet, so, and for). Here are some examples of compound sentences formed with co-ordinating conjunctions.

The trumpets sound, and the saints go marching in.
I waited for her, but she left me crying in the rain.
I don't feel well, so I will not go to the party.
She agreed to remain behind, for she was the bravest in the group.
I could stay home tonight, or I could go to my English class.

1.30 Note that the comma in a compound sentence comes before the co-ordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, yet, for). This does not mean that you need a comma every time you use one of these co-ordinating conjunctions. Do not get into the bad habit of putting a comma before every and or but. When the conjunction joins two parts of the same sentence, for example, no comma is necessary. Put the comma in only when the conjunction joins two independent clauses.

He cut the meat and the potatoes.
[No comma, because the and joins two parts of the same clause. Note that if you put a full stop before the and here, you will create a sentence fragment]

He cut the meat and ate it.
[No comma, because the word and joins two parts of the same clause, two verbs. Note that if you put a full stop before the and here, you will create a sentence fragment]

He cut the meat, but the dog ate it.
[The comma is appropriate here, because the but joins two independent clauses. Note that if you use a full stop here, you do not create a fragment]

He and his dog ate the meat and the vegetables together.
[No commas before the and's in this sentence, because there is only one independent clause]

She said that I was to blame and that she would sue me.
[No comma before the and here, because the and joins two parts of the same sentence]

1.31 When you join two independent clauses with a co-ordinating conjunction to form a single compound sentence, the two clauses which make up the single compound sentence should be closely connected logically. Do not get into the habit of writing compound sentences in which two apparently unrelated ideas are linked.

The Nass Valley is in northern British Columbia, and the provincial government has only recently proposed a treaty with the first nations inhabitants of the area.
[These two ideas have no immediate logical connection. They do not belong in the same sentence. Separate them with a full stop]

The machine we watched worked well on muddy ground, but each crew supervisor was responsible for two five-men crews.
[The two halves of this single compound sentence are not clearly related]

1.32 Avoid excessively long compound sentences which consist of a number of independent clauses loosely strung together with co-ordinating conjunctions. Most compound sentences should have only two independent clauses and no more, unless you wish to create a special stylistic effect. Avoid a style like the following:

Nora is upset with Torvald, so she confronts him at the end of the play, and they quarrel bitterly, for they obviously do not understand each other, so they separate, and Nora walks out the door.

1.33 Another form of the compound sentence puts the two independent clauses together without a co-ordinating conjunction. In such a sentence, a semi-colon (not a comma) indicates the end of the first independent clause and the beginning of the second independent clause (i.e., it comes where a full stop would be equally appropriate). Here are some examples:

I am sick; I have decided to stay at home today.

The ending of this story is a disappointment; the hero's conduct here is not convincing.

I am sick. I have decided to stay home today.
I am sick, and I have decided to stay home today.
I am sick; I have decided to stay home today.

1.34 Do not overuse the semi-colon. Generally speaking, it works best between two equal independent clauses in which the second is either the result of the first or the antithesis (the opposite) of the first. Think of the semi-colon as a balance point between two equally important ideas.

To err is human; to forgive divine.
The conditions in the laboratory were erratic; thus, the experiment failed.
The starting line-up played badly; however, the substitute players performed exceptionally well.

1.35 Avoid excessively long compound sentences made up of a number of independent clauses separated by semi-colons. Normally, the compound sentence should have only two independent clauses, and thus there should be only one semi-colon within the body of the complete sentence. See 1.32 above.

1.36 Do not separate the two independent clauses in a compound sentence with a comma when there is no co-ordinating conjunction (and, but, so, or, yet, for) to go with it. In this case use a semi-colon or a full stop. When you put a comma between two independent clauses without a co-ordinating conjunction, you create a comma splice, one of the most frequent basic errors in punctuation. Notice the following example of this mistake:

The crew is arriving today, we should start work soon.

The crew is arriving today. We should start work soon.
The crew is arriving today; we should start work soon.
The crew is arriving today, so we should start work soon.

1.37 The basic rule for punctuating compound sentences given above in 1.33 (the semi-colon) applies also if you choose to introduce the second independent clause with a conjunctive adverb (e.g., however, therefore, consequently, moreover, thus, and so on). You still place the semi-colon at the end of the first independent clause to indicate the first idea is now over. Note that it is customary to place a comma after such an introductory conjunctive adverb. Here are some examples.

I am sick; consequently, I am not going to work.
We were supposed to read the book; however, I forgot.
Salieri thinks that God is cheating him; thus, he decides to fight against God.

1.38 Unlike the co-ordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so, yet, for) which must come right at the start of the second independent clause, a conjunctive adverb (e.g., however, therefore, consequently, moreover, thus, and so on) can appear almost anywhere in the second independent (not simply at the start). If you put the conjunctive adverb in the middle of the second independent clause, the semi-colon stays right at the end of the first main clause (the break between the two ideas), and the conjunctive adverb has commas around it. The semi-colon, in other words, does not follow the conjunctive adverb. Notice the following examples:

You wrote a poor report; however, you can try again.
You wrote a poor report; you can, however, try again.
You wrote a poor report; you can try again, however.

1.39 A complex sentence has an independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The dependent clause almost always begins with a word which indicates its dependent nature (e.g., although, if, since, after, because, and so on). Commonly the dependent clause comes before the main clause. Here are some examples:

When I had finished the job, I went home.
Since we are on strike, I will not report for work.
Before he explores his political theory, Hobbes describes his view of human nature.
Although Elisa seems to be strong, she is, in fact, quite weak.

1.40 In a complex sentence, the main idea, the one you want to emphasize, should be in the independent clause, and the less important idea (e.g., the circumstances like the time, place, conditions) should be in the dependent clause. Try not to reverse the emphasis in a sentence with illogical subordination.

I was driving along the highway when suddenly the car exploded.

While I was driving along the highway, the car suddenly exploded.

 

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